Universals — General or abstract concepts applicable to multiple particulars: “human,” “white,” “triangular.” The problem of universals divides medieval philosophy: (1) Realism: universals have real existence independent of particulars (Plato, Augustine, Anselm); (2) Nominalism: universals are only names (nomina), without reference to real entities (Ockham); (3) Conceptualism: universals exist as mental concepts, not as external things (Abelard). The debate continues in analytic metaphysics.
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